Augustus Caesars Foreign Policy Defensive imperialism or aggressive conquest Free Essay Example, 2500 words

Example of wars of conquest includes the war with King Philip the 5th of Macedonia, and King Antiochus the 3rd of Syria. To fully understand the foreign policies of Augustus Caesar, it is important to understand the manner in which he took power in Rome. To become the 1st Roman Empire, Augustus Caesar had to exterminate all his potential rivals, and this includes Mark Anthony, the Roman general who served under Julius Caesar. Augustus Caesar had to convince the senate to wage war against Egypt under the leadership of Cleopatra. This was a war against Mark Anthony, mainly because Egypt was under his protection (Morley, 24). This was the first war of conquest that Mark Anthony initiated, and the aim was to conquer Egypt and exterminate all his rivals to the throne of Rome. It is important to denote that Augustus was successful in this initiative, and he managed to take Egypt, and upon his coronation as an Emperor, he made Egypt his special province that was not governed by a Governor, but by a special prefect appointed by him. This prefect was directly answerable to Caesar, and thus ensuring his absolute control of Egypt. We will write a custom essay sample on Augustus Caesar's Foreign Policy: Defensive imperialism or aggressive conquest or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now It is important to denote that Egypt was very special and important to Augustus, mainly because it had the treasures and resources that enabled him to pay his army. Barrett (462) explains that it was a rule that anytime the legions of Augustus Caesar conquered any place, these were able to invoke the name of his title, and called him the supreme commander. Through this law, Augustus Caesar wanted to be associated with every victory his soldiers were able to acquire. Roth (188) further explains that by the year 12 BC, Augustus Caesar managed to conquer at least 21 territories, and in all these territories, his armies proclaimed the title, supreme commander. Furthermore, Augustus was able to promote the concept that the ways of life of the Romans were superior when compared to other ways of life. Furthermore, the emperor believed that the Romans were given the task and duty of ruling the entire world (Wilkinson, 39). Fuhrmann (53) explains that Augustus believed that to rule the world, the Romans had to use strength. It is based on this philosophy that the armies of Augustus Caesar were encouraged and motivated to invade new areas that were not under the jurisdiction of the Roman Empire. Gibbon (53) explains that one of the major characteristics of a state that engages in an aggressive conquest is a tendency of developing policies aimed at making the citizens of the state under consideration as superior to the citizens of other states.

The Works Of William Shakespeare s Beethoven

There are many fine examples of his quality of work in this period. However, his one opera would have to be at the top of the list. Fidelio was the only opera Beethoven wrote. Not only was it his only opera, but he rewrote it three times with at least â€Å"four different overtures† (Hanning 378). If this does not show Beethoven’s quality is his work then what does? He wanted this opera to be absolutely perfect, and it was fantastic! Not only were the music and words great, but Beethoven made sure to have a strong plot line to back it up. â€Å"Beethoven’s music transforms this conventional material, making the chief character, Leonore, an idealized figure of sublime courage and self-denial† (Hanning 378). The quality of work done in and on the piece is amazing. It is hard to find quality that equals that of the work Beethoven put into his compositions. Are other composers and musicians good? Most definitely, but, Beethoven’s work is still supremely popular today because of its quality. Another piece of music that was written during this time, which shows off his quality once again, would have to be, Symphony No. 5. This symphony is part of Beethoven’s middle symphonies, 4, 5, and 6. All three of these were also composed within three years (1806-1808). While many people may be familiar with the sixth symphony, Pastoral Symphony, the fifth one has remained the most famous. It is a stark contrast to many of his other works because the key â€Å"can be considered the musical projection ofShow MoreRelatedBeauty : What Are Beauty?891 Words   |  4 Pages What is Beauty? Beauty in my opinion is all about who is perceiving it, although there are many things that can be widely accepted as beautiful, whether it s a bountiful orchard of apple trees or the deep vast ocean blue with the waves cascading down with the mystery of life looming in the depths beneath. Beauty can be described as the fresh snow glistening on the pine trees with deer majestic in their natural glory and fat, fluffy hares dancing playfully in the snow or birds in song singing toRead MoreBeauty : My Humble Opinion Is All About Who Is Perceiving It993 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is Beauty? Beauty in my humble opinion is all about who is perceiving it, although there are many things that can be widely accepted as beautiful, whether it s a bountiful orchard of apple trees or the deeply vast ocean blue with the waves cascading down producing a glorious sound and the grand mysteries of life looming in the depths beneath. Beauty can be described as the fresh snow glistening on the pine trees with deer majestic in their natural glory, nested down in peaceful slumber andRead MoreAbortion is Never Justified Essay1028 Words   |  5 Pageswhen finding this out it is easier to decide whether abortion is right or wrong. 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Dramatic irony, pathetic fallacy and humour Essay Example For Students

Dramatic irony, pathetic fallacy and humour Essay The objective of this task was to create an autobiography using Tennesse Williamsstyle of writing. In his play, The Glass Menagerie he uses music, the screen device and lighting in a very effective way as well as using various literary devices such as dramatic irony, pathetic fallacy and humour.  I start out by giving a detailed description of the setting in the opening stage directions, just like Tennesse Williams, to set the play. In the beginning, the main character also starts with a long monologue explaining what the play is about and giving the social background of the play. The fact that Dawid enters wearing a German uniform although he is a Jew is alienating to the audience but later on in the play its explained that he was forced to disguise himself as a German in order to survive the war. I also used humour in the opening speech he died in 1915, middle of World War 1 on the front line after receiving a telegram that my mother had given birth, His cry of joy gave away his position and he was shot by a German sniper when describing how the main characters father had died, which is always entertaining to the audience and keeps them interested in the play. This mixture of tragedy and comedy is known as tragicomedy and is used by great writers such as Shakespeare and its effect is to play with the audiences emotions. Again I decided I would use the screen device to show some images and outline the main message of each scene. In the opening stage directions lighting is also focusedon the photograph of the father to outline his importance in the play. The fact that the characters keep on referring to their father also foreshadows that he will be relevant in the rest on the play. Dramatic irony is also used when Dawid confidently says that the Germans will not attack them, as we know that they actually did. I also included other literary devices such as pathetic fallacy rain pouring out of the grey sky which is technique frequently used by Tennesse Williams. Dawid is a character in the play as well as the narrator which again is alienating since that doesnt normally happen on stage .Dawid can also exaggerate sometimes since the audience are seeing the scene through Dawids perspective. Again I decided I would add music to the scene to create an atmosphere and the fact that the music used is Third Reich military music is also a bit humoruus and alienating to the audience. Williams also uses various symbols, such as the glass menagerie, so again I decided to use a symbol. The statue of Kazimierz Pulaski symbolizes freedom, independence and safety and when the statue is knocked down by the German people are no longer safe or free. Overall I think my text is good since its written in a similar style to Tennessee Williams and it sounds authentic, all of that can happen in the real world or has indeed happened. I think the use of the statue as a symbol was a good idea, since Tennessee Williams likes to use symbols such as the glass menagerie, as was the pathetic fallacy however maybe a more personal view of the surroundings could have been given in the opening stage directions to make the opening description even more closely related to Tennessee Williams style of writing.

Tactics for a good speech free essay sample

These tricks include making eye contact with the audience and using hand gestures, starting the speech with a question or a fact, and finally if you make a mistake do not apologize to the audience. Eye contact with the audience and using hand gestures. Making eye contact with the audience and using hand gestures can help you engage with your audience and make a firm connection with them. Making a connection is important because it will help you deliver your message through to whom you are speaking to.With eye contact, do not linger on Just one person. Instead, make sure to shift your focus around the audience to connect with as many people as possible. However, be careful not to dart your eye contact around too frantically. It Is important to hold an eye contact with an individual for at least 3 seconds. Starting the speech with a question or a fact. We will write a custom essay sample on Tactics for a good speech or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Starting the speech with a question or a fact will help catch your audiences attention right away.If you start your speech with a great question It will help generate interest In the topic you are presenting. You may even use the question to create audience participation by allowing some folks to take a stab at answering the question. For example, If you youre doing a speech on India you can start off the presentation by asking your audience Does anyone know how many languages are spoken in India? Such a question can evoke curiosity as the audience may find themselves looking forward to answer.Also to start the speech with power, find a unique fact about your topic. For example, going back to doing a speech about India you can start off your speech by saying India has more English speakers than United States. A simple question or a fact can get your audience to focus on your topic and show Interest. Do not apologize to the audience. Sometimes during a presentation, you may pause wealth your speech and make a small mistake. This can cause Internal panic and lead you to apologize to your audience. Mistakes can be covered up quickly or Just Ignored In most cases. However, an apology to the audience may leave a negative and lasting Impression. Apologies may suggest that you are unprepared, lack confidence, and feel weaker than the audience. Often times, your audience will not catch a small error. Instead, It Is Important to stay focused on the facts and continue with the presentation In a professional manner. Small mistakes occur during most speeches, but make sure not to make them voluble by apologizing.

The Cavalry During The Civil War Essay Example For Students

The Cavalry During The Civil War Essay The Civil War played a crucial role in American history. Many different types of soldiers fought in this war, such as Cavalry soldiers, who fought on horseback. The Cavalry played a strong role in the fighting and used many different weapons and tactics. One type of Cavalry weapon was the revolver. Only one hand was needed in the firing of this type of weapon. This was very important since the soldiers other hand was used to manage the horse. The Colt was the most popular brand of revolvers during the war. The Army and the Navy were the two main models. The Army model was the most popular of the Union Army. It was a six shot, .44 caliber revolver that weighed two pounds. We will write a custom essay on The Cavalry During The Civil War specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now This weapon accounted for 40% of all handguns bought by the Union Ordinance Department (Weapons of the Civil War 2). The Navy model was very similar to the Army. It had a round barrel instead of an octagonal barrel and held .36 caliber cartridges. 38,000 were produced during The Civil War and 15,000 of those were produced within the Confederacy (Weapons of the Civil War 2).The most famous foreign pistol of the war was The Le Mat, produced by Dr. Le Mat in France. It was unique in that it had two barrels, like a small shotgun. The upper barrel shot .40 caliber rounds while the lower barrel shot .63 caliber rounds. Starr was the third largest producer of revolvers. Starr was known for its six shot double action revolver that weighed three pounds and was used mainly by the Union soldiers. It was very convenient because it held combustible cartridges and could also be fired by the old ball and powder method. Since Colt had a patent on its firing procedure Starr was forced into coming up with its own. To fire this pistol a soldier would pull the trigger, which unlocks then rotates a hammer that then snaps back and fires the cartridge. Another company was Savage, which produced the well-known Figure of Eight which had a very odd shape. 11000 were bought by The Union (Commager 284). After its trigger was pulled the cylinder would be cranked forward to make a gas tight joint with the barrel prior to its firing. The next most popular to The Colt was The Remington. Popularity is not everything though, some experts believe the Remington was better mechanically. Remington made two models, an Army and a Navy. The Army was .44 calibers while the Navy was . 36. 125,000 were bought total in the Union (Commager 283). That amount was only limited by the amount actually produced.The next type of weapon used was the Carbine Rifle. These rifles were made for mounted troops, like the Cavalry. These guns had short barrels for easy handling. They were also made to be able to be loaded on a moving horse. In addition, they held moisture proof cartridges that were much better than paper. One brand was Spencer. This company sold their carbines to the Union and rarely was found in the South. This companys cartridges were especially good because they were built in primer and became more durable and waterproof. Spencers rifle could also be a rapid-fire weapon. The best soldiers could shoot fourteen rounds per minute (Weapons of the Civil War 6).Another popular brand was Sharps. 80,000 were produced during the war. This gun had a unique shot process. Before the trigger was pulled a block was lowered and a paper cartridge was released into a chamber. When the block closed the paper was slit exposing the gunpowder. Then, when the trigger was pulled, it would snap back into a percussion cap, which produced a flame that passed into a vent and struck the exposed powder.The last type of weapon used by a Cavalry soldier was a saber. .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d , .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .postImageUrl , .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d , .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d:hover , .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d:visited , .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d:active { border:0!important; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d:active , .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u231f882227c16f99342799f212d2b76d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Adolf Hitler and WWII Essay This was a type of sword, deadly in the hands of a trained soldier. In the early years of the war many soldiers were untrained though and many horses of untrained masters lost ears. These sabers had either a 42-inch or 36 inch blade. Out of 250,000 total people wounded in Union hospitals approximately 922 were due to saber wounds (Boatner 260). This weapon did become useless in the later years of the war due to modern rapid-fire weapons. The cavalry had many uses in the war. One use was observing and reporting information about the enemy. This was a job given to the cavalry because they could get back and forth the quickest because of the horses speed. Another job was screening the movements of their own force so that the enemy could not see what they were doing. Also, they always remained a constant threat to the opposing Armys rear. Other jobs were striking suddenly at detected weak points and turning exposed flanks. The last job was pursuing and demoralizing a defeated enemy. The Civil War Cavalry used many different weapons and tactics. The Cavalry was the most expensive branch, but the importance of it overrode any costs. These mounted soldiers played a strong role in the warfare of their day and helped both the North and the South to win battles.

Measuring Quality of Life Based on Geography

Measuring Quality of Life Based on Geography Perhaps the most important aspect of living that we sometimes take for granted is the quality of life that we receive by living and working where we do. For instance, the ability for you to peruse these words through the use of a computer is something that might be censored in some Middle Eastern countries and China. Even our capability to walk safely down a street is something that some countries (and even some cities in the United States) may lack. Identifying areas with the highest quality of life offers an important view of cities and ​countries while providing information for those hoping to relocate. Measuring  Quality of Life By Geography One way of looking at a places quality of life is by the amount of output it produces each year. This is especially handy in the case of a country considering many countries have varying degrees of production, differing resources, and distinctive conflicts and problems within them. The major way of measuring a countrys output per year is by looking at the countrys gross domestic product, or GDP. The GDP is the amount of goods and services produced within a country annually and is typically a good indication of the amount of money flowing in and out of the country. When we divide a countrys total GDP by its total population, we get GDP per capita which reflects what each individual of that country takes home (on average) per year. The idea is that the more money we have the better off we are. Top 5 Countries with the Largest GDPs The following are the top five countries with the largest GDPs in 2010 according to the World Bank: 1) United States: $14,582,400,000,0002) China: $5,878,629,000,0003) Japan: $5,497,813,000,0004) Germany: $3,309,669,000,0005) France: $2,560,002,000,000 Countries with Highest-Ranked GDP Per Capita The five highest-ranked countries in terms of GDP per capita in 2010 according to the World Bank: 1) Monaco: $186,1752) Liechtenstein: $134,3923) Luxembourg: $108,7474) Norway: $84,8805) Switzerland: $67,236 It seems that small developed countries are ranked the highest in terms of per capita income. This is a good indicator to see what the average salary is of a country but can be a bit misleading since these small countries are also some of the richest and, therefore, must be the most well off. Since this indicator can be a bit distorted due to the population size, there exist other factors which further inform quality of life. Human Poverty Index Another metric for looking at how well-off a countrys people are is to take into consideration the Human Poverty Index (HPI) of the country. The HPI for developing countries represents quality of life by formulating the probability of not surviving to age 40, the adult literacy rate, and the average amount of the countrys population who have little to no access to clean drinking water. While the outlook for this metric is seemingly dismal, it does provide important clues as to what countries are better off. There is a second HPI that is used mostly for those countries that are considered developed. The United States, Sweden, and Japan are good examples. The aspects that are formulated for this HPI are the probability of not surviving to age 60, the number of adults lacking functional literacy skills, the percentage of ​the  population with income below the poverty line, and the rate of unemployment lasting longer than 12 months. Other Measures and Indicators of Quality of Life A well-known survey that attracts a lot of international attention is the Mercer Quality of Living Survey. The annual list places New York City with a baseline score of 100 to act as the median for all other cities to compare with. The rankings consider many different aspects from cleanliness and safety to culture and infrastructure. The list is a very valuable resource for ambitious companies looking to set up an office internationally, and also for employers to decide on how much to pay at certain offices. Recently, Mercer began to factor in environmental friendliness into their equation for cities with the highest qualities of life as a means of better qualifying what makes a great city. There exist a few unusual indicators for measuring quality of life as well. For example, the king of Bhutan in the 1970s (Jigme Singye Wangchuck) decided to overhaul the Bhutanese economy by having each member of the country strive for happiness as opposed to money. He felt that GDP was rarely a good indicator of happiness as the indicator fails to take into account environmental and ecological improvements and their effects, yet includes defense expenditures that rarely benefit a countrys happiness. He developed an indicator called Gross National Happiness (GNH), which is somewhat difficult to measure. For instance, while GDP is an easy tally of goods and services sold within a country, GNH doesnt have much for quantitative measures. However, scholars have tried their best to make some sort of quantitative measurement and have found a countrys GNH to be a function of the well-being of a human in economic, environmental, political, social, workplace, physical, and mental terms. These terms, when aggregated and analyzed, can define how happy a nation is. There are also a number of other ways to quantify ones quality of life. A second alternative is the genuine progress indicator (GPI) which is similar to GDP but instead looks to see if a countrys growth has actually made people better off in that nation. For instance, if the financial costs of crimes, environmental degradation, and natural resource losses are higher than the financial gains made through production, then the countrys growth is uneconomic. One statistician who has created a way to analyze trends in data and growth is the Swedish academic Hans Rosling. His creation, Gapminder Foundation, has compiled plenty of useful data for the public to access, and even a visualizer, which allows for a user to look at trends over time. It is a great tool for anyone interested in growth or health statistics.

Health effects of air pollution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health effects of air pollution - Essay Example Inhalation of air pollutants causes distress to the respiratory system, which lead to development of chronic respiratory infections, and aggravation of ailments affecting the system. The air pollutants cause respiratory problems in various ways including blocking the air pathways after being deposited in the lungs, irritation and inflammation of the respiratory tract resulting to production of mucus and coughing. These effects increase the vulnerability of the affected person to developing infections of the respiratory system. Numerous medical research studies on the effect of air pollution on children indicate that their health is more prone to the emissions than adults are (WHO, 2005). Polluted air causes adverse effects to the growth and development of both unborn and born children. Several factors contribute to the increased vulnerability of children’s health to air pollution. These include the continuing growth and development process of the lungs, incomplete metabolic systems and undeveloped immune systems that makes them susceptible to respiratory infections (WHO, 2005). These factors could lead to higher exposure of the children to air pollutants and increase the toxicity of the substances once they enter into the respiratory system. According to WHO (2005, p18) the effectiveness of the detoxification system in children improves with time, during prenatal and postnatal period. Hence, children at prenatal stage are most susceptible to air pollution because the lungs and the respiratory syste m are at critical stage of growth and development. When the developing lungs are exposed to air pollution, their optimal functional ability reduces and the abnormality continues to adulthood, causing reduced functional reserve of the lungs (WHO, 2005). Reduced functional reserve in adulthood increases the vulnerability of infections due to ageing and exposure to other pollutants, such as smoking and work related exposures (WHO, 2005,

Identify components of a typical contract Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Identify components of a typical contract - Essay Example Contract law is set on the principle which states that agreements between individuals must be reserved. Literally, it stands for maintaining a set of agreements (Ewan, 2005). In order to take either side of the two parties present in this scenario, it is necessary to understand a significant element of a contract as stated in many jurisdictions. The most significant element of a contract states that if one party sets a bid for an arrangement, then another party has to accept the accord. This can be referred to as an arrangement of meeting of the minds or wills of diverse sides (Ewan, 2005). The final accord is contested by the parties involved. The winner of the contest has the final say in the accord. The observable doubt is that a law court cannot interpret the minds of the parties involved. This leads to the contract being judged without bias, with only limited space for questioning the contract’s intention. There ought to be confirmation that the parties had both, from an objective view, engaged in a conduct that made clear their agreement. The confirmation should lead to a contract being created if the sides have arrived at such a state. An objective view means that it is only essential that an individual gives the sense of accepting or offering contractual conditions. This condition should be in view of a realistic individual, who in reality looks to create a legible contract (Barnett, 2003). Jud Wheeler bought the 10 acre piece of land from Krause Company at an agreed price that the two parties settled. The Krause Company later came to the understanding that it had sold its land at a low value which it thought that the buyer, Jud Wheeler, had enticed them to sell. The agreements of the two parties go with the element of a contract that states if one party sets a bid for an arrangement, then the other party has to accept the accord. Jud Wheeler came up

Critical Thinking Week 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Critical Thinking Week 2 - Essay Example Nothing is accepted on face value and every aspect of a communication, whether oral or written, is questioned to clearly identify the issues, stated conclusions, arguments, evidence in support and assumptions/omissions/fallacies. This should lead to the right conclusions and right decisions. Clear thinking is all about ‘the ability to engage in reflective and independent thinking’ (Anon., n.d., philosophy.hku.hk). According to Study Guides, clear thinking involves ‘placing the facts and information in a pattern †¦ and †¦ accepting or rejecting the source values and conclusions†¦Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ (Anon., n.d., studygs.net). In the following paragraphs, a memo from the Director of Human Resources, Federated State Employees Union (FSEU), Local 343 to its President, in response to the proposal of the Governor of the state of Illinois for economizing the budgeted personnel cost of the department of transportation (DoT) through outsourcing its information systems m anagement, is analyzed applying the critical thinking process through its various steps (Browne and Keeley, 2007). Analysis Step 1: Issue and conclusion The memo lays down the union’s opposition to privatization of jobs as a means to curtail costs, dilates on the perils of the proposed action on union and its members, and attempts to justify the opposition on multiple grounds. The prescriptive issue conveyed is: Should the Governor’s proposal to cut costs by eliminating certain jobs by resorting to privatization be allowed to be implemented? The conclusion is: It is not only a bad idea but also bad in law, and is in effect an attempt to control the union. Step 2: Reasons offered FSEU is questioning the rationale of eliminating jobs through outsourcing, which opens up the possibility of permanent unemployment of the concerned union members. Since outsourcing would potentially invite foreign agents with their unfair advantage of low-wage workers, the proposal is seen as anti-American and as a forerunner for similar attempts in other departments too. Further, it would lead to reduced wages as a result of competition from foreign workers. Dispersal to other departments and potential wage reduction are attempts by the management to gain control over the union. Displaced workers, if at all they get new postings, would need to learn new skills and to cope with new environs, in spite of their age, experience and merit. It is contended that employee reduction/displacement through privatization runs contrary to the Pendleton Act of 1883. Step 3: Ambiguity in reasoning The Wikipedia reference to the relevance of Pendleton Act of 1883 is tenuous and not specific. Words and phrases like ‘instability, most likely, similar, attempt to drive out old experienced workers’ are ambiguous in context and not supported by reason or evidence. Step 4: Value assumptions/conflicts The major value assumed in the memo is the union’s right to protect the i nterests of its members and for citizens at large, both on the present issue and for future. Further, it is argued that yielding by the union on the issue would weaken its position for future negotiations with the management. At the same time, the assumed threat for the union members is sought to be used to garner votes

Lyndon Johnsons Vietnam War Strategy

Lyndon Johnsons Vietnam War Strategy LYNDON JOHNSON’S PEACE INITIATIVES DURING THE VIETNAM WAR â€Å"What did the Johnson administration hope to achieve from diplomatic efforts to resolve the Vietnam War between 1965 and 1968 and with what success?† Introduction: Lyndon Johnson had become highly besieged in the pursuit of his Vietnam policy. Most historical arguments centre round his inept handling of the situation, in which he escalated the bombing offensives and then tempered them down making a mess of the peace moves, which were never done with any serious intent. The core of the historical criticism of the president is that he allowed himself to be blindly guided by inappropriate advice from Robert McNamara, and caused avoidable loss to American lives. Obsessed with the idea of keeping the armed forces subordinate to the presidency, the Johnson administration gave instructions that were out of sync with the happenings on the battlefield. This paper takes a look at these developments, while listing in some detail the peace moves he tried to make, and how they came a cropper. It finally looks at the reasons for their failures, and tries to point out who could be held responsible for the fracas. Limitations of this paper Since this paper is about a highly narrowed down topic, a background to the war and its developments is not made; this paper is limited to discussing its defined purview, and hence these details and the persons involved in the war are taken as given. Need for negotiations In order to understand with what objectives the president initiated negotiations, it is necessary to understand the situation that forced him to make these moves. With a series of ill-conceived actions, the president had crossed the Rubicon over Vietnam. Well into the middle of his term, it was a thorn in the flesh from which there seemed no reprieve for the beleaguered president, even as enormous pressure mounted at home to end the war. As aptly summed up, â€Å"Vietnam was a stalemate producing irreconcilable domestic divisions and a nightmare†¦from which Johnson could not awake.† (Dallek, 1998, p. 443) From the sunny days of his presidential campaigning of 1964, when less than a third of the population saw Vietnam as the most pressing problem the nation faced to a near doubling of this figure by the winter of 1965-66, the decline in support for the president’s policies on Vietnam was rapid. (Dallek, 2004, p. 251) His gauche at handling the press was also another factor for this situation, with the result that Vietnam soon became, in the perception of the American public, â€Å"President Johnson’s war†. (Liebovich, 1998, p. 45) Egged on by his Defense Secretary, Robert McNamara, Johnson had given the war efforts no respite; he was firmly convinced that all it needed were a few more bombings and a few successful fights to end the war. He could not have been more off the target; while the president’s men assessed that the Vietcong and the North Vietnamese regular armies could be subdued, the latter resorted to guerrilla tactics, from scattered and well-spread positions. The result was calamitous –by 1967, nearly half a million Americans had been sent to Vietnam, of whom the total casualties were in the region of 100,000, among whom no less than a seventh had lost their lives. (Liebovich, 1998, p. 44) Although the Government of South Vietnam, (GVN), whose fragile nature had for so long worried the US, had coalesced, with the Cao Ky coup by the beginning of 1966, the Johnson administration was in a bind about the policy it had to pursue, because astronomical sums were going down the drain. An April 1966 intra-governmental policy review had not seen any major reason for hope. The views of the presidential staff differed sharply from those of the men on the battlefield. Air strikes, on which the administration had pinned its highest hopes to achieve a breakthrough in the war, had come to a virtual naught, and were becoming a colossal waste of resources. One of the prime air strike programmes, ROLLING THUNDER, in the assessment the Institute of Defense Analysis made in the summer of 1966 had â€Å"had no measurable direct effect†. This was after the air strikes on the highly strategic and vulnerable areas of Petroleum, Oil and Lubricants, (POL) of the Democratic Republic of Nor th Vietnam (DRV). (Gelb Betts, 1979, pp. 146-148) At this point, the lack of effectiveness of the bombing strategy was also severely compounded by the exorbitant cost of carrying out these operations, which according to the CIA, cost almost ten times as much as the gains they brought. Having dropped as much as 643,000 tons of bombs on North Vietnam, the cost of this on the US exchequer was $ 9.60 for every dollar’s worth of damage they inflicted on the DRV with only half the fighter bombers having the capability of surviving the year-long stint as pilots. (Wiest, 2003, p. 27) This terrible cost of escalation was also reflecting on the economy, taking it on an inflationary spiral, and threatening to neutralise its post-war gains. (Isserman Kazin, 2000, p. 224) Gold prices were becoming very volatile, and all these contributed to completely undermine his ‘Great Society’ programme, on which he had come to power, (Reiter Stam, 2002, p. 121) and whose central theme was economic growth accompanied by poverty reduction. (Brown-Collier, 1998) In addition, another extremely important factor was threatening to bring the president on his knees –sustained antiwar movement, that had been inspired by the success of the Civil Rights movement. On the field, the highhandedness of the American forces had only succeeded in making the South support the North, and the infiltration of men and other supplies from the North. Through the Ho Chi Minh Trail, an estimated 90,000 men infiltrated to the South between 1965 and 1967. The Americanisation of South Vietnam was a total disaster. (Best, Hanhimà ¤ki, Maiolo Schulze, 2004, pp. 296) It was in the wake of these major drawbacks associated with continued bombing that the president was forced to mellow his position. By December 1966, the administration was convinced that since there was no way by which they could win the war, at least by election time, the only road that lay ahead was negotiation, (Dallek , 1998, p. 444) since this was the only way by which he could reverse these conditions. However, as the next section illustrates, he was no better at these negotiations, either. Johnson’s objectives, the negotiations and reasons for their failure These debacles were to reflect heavily on the president personally; by December 1966, the realisation had clearly and irrevocably dawned on the administration that unless the Americans ended the war at the earliest, it would reflect badly on the nation’s elections of 1968. At this stage, there was no alternative to negotiation, if the president was to have the slightest chance of re-election. From the high perch at which the president was seated, the only non-negotiable point at the discussions now became a separate state within South Vietnam (SVN), and a non- communist government for the president. (Dallek, 1998, p. 443) The first concrete steps towards negotiation were taken furtively, in 1966. At this point, the US was still very imperious, even though it was the one that initiated the negotiation. It made a blanket, unconditional demand –that the DRV stop infiltration into the south for bombing to stop. The first of these steps, known as bombing pauses, was hardly f ruitful. Taking off from here, the Johnson administration made a clearer move towards negotiation at the Manila Conference in the Declaration of Peace in 1966. The aim of the administration, which was to negotiate from a position of strength, offered the condition that the US would withdraw from South Vietnam within six months of Hanoi withdrawing the last of its troops from there. However, the DRV too was equally determined to bargain from a position of strength. The result was that the Johnson administration was seen to be keen on making peace, but within the administration, the same problem of the mismatch in thinking between the executive and the armed forces remained, (Gelb Betts, 1979, p. 151) because the president, in whose mind the famous spat between Harry Truman and Gen. Douglas McArthur during the Korean War had been weighing heavily, decided that the best way to avoid a repeat of such a situation now was to keep the military under the firm control of the presidency. Unf ortunately, he was ham-handed in doing this, ending up in only isolating the military and creating a terrible disharmony between the two. (Jacobsen, 1996, p. 216) Accordingly, after the raids of December 13 and 14, the president ordered a Christmas ceasefire, and extended it up to January 1 as a goodwill gesture. The main objective for Johnson at this stage was securing the territorial integrity of the north and south of Vietnam, or all Vietnam, should its people choose reunification. His objective was also clearly aimed at silencing his critics at home, of whom there was no dearth. He sought to make these moves towards negotiations to silence the doves in the Congress, who kept insisting on negotiations, and the American public, who were becoming war-weary. (Dallek, 1998, pp. 443-448) The quick progress Eugene McCarthy made at the Hampshire primaries jolted the president about his sagging popularity. Drawing from McCarthy’s success, Robert Kennedy, too decided to challenge t he president. (Isserman Kazin, 2000, p. 224) Internally, the most urgent need for him was to use the Vietnam War as a means to finish off his political rivals at home, chief among whom was Robert Kennedy. â€Å"For all his hope and brave talk about progress in the fighting, he still feared that the war would destroy him politically and open the way to a successful Kennedy bid for the presidency.† (Dallek, 1998, p. 448) There was also another factor –a change in US attitudes towards China, following the perception of Chinese expansion being the cornerstone of a Vietnam policy getting significantly reduced around the middle of 1966. (Parker, 1989, p. 142) Johnson hoped that he could hold his people together while using the armed forces and air strikes to force the Hanoi government to buckle just in time to give him a great fillip for the 1968 elections. Internationally, too, he was keen to be seen as a man who was interested in peace, accepting British and Russian offers to mediate, albeit reluctantly. He followed these up with another ceasefire for February 6-13. (Dallek, 1998, p. 446) Peace moves Operation Marigold was the name given to the Johnson administration’s attempt to make peace with Hanoi through indirect means, by which intermediaries in the form of emissaries of neutral countries were sent to develop channels of communication. It first started when the Polish member of the International Control Commission, Janusz Lewandowski apprised the Italian ambassador in Saigon, Giovanni d’ Orlandi and then the US ambassador to South Vietnam, Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., about Ho Chi Minh’s mind. The North Vietnamese leader was surprisingly amiable to US propositions. He suggested that if the Americans suspended bombing, he was more than willing to talk with them; an even greater surprise was that he was not going to insist that a socialist regime be established in the South, would not meddle in the affairs of the southern government, and that he was willing to consider a â€Å"reasonable calendar† for American withdrawal. Yet, in typical hubris, the John son administration threw away an easy way out of the conflict that had presented itself on a platter. The reason? Washington’s perceived untrustworthiness of the neutrality of communist Poland. Such a baffling, completely unfounded assumption destroyed a great chance for peace. A glaring example of the complete lack of coordination between the presidential and military staff, the basic reason for which bombing had not stopped earlier, showed itself up in December 1966. While the US ambassador in Poland, John Gronouski, was making preparations for a highly sensitive meeting with Polish officials, out of the blue, the US dropped bombs on sensitive targets in Hanoi heavily on December 2 and 3. This completely set the clock back on whatever little progress the Poles were making towards negotiating with the DRV, which centred round the issue of bombing. To this, the unrepentant administration offered the flimsiest of reasons for which the air strikes could not go ahead as planned on November 10 – bad weather! Further, even the planned attacks on December 13 and 14 went ahead as scheduled, giving the Marigold initiative a quick burial. Analysts are of the opinion that even after the bombings of December 2 and 3, there was hope for some salvage, but that the Johnson administration, which had in the first place created the truce move, killed it with its own hands. The simple reason for this was the total lack of sincerity on the part of the Johnson administration about going ahead with the bombing pauses. After briefly halting its bombings in mid-December, the US once again insisted that Hanoi reciprocate unequivocally. It read wrongly the situation on the ground in Hanoi in mid-late January 1967. With the DRV Foreign Minister, Ngoyen Duy Trinh’s tough words on January 28, demanding that the US stop its bombings immediately, the official obituary to the Marigold initiative came to be written. (Gelb Betts, 1979, pp. 152, 153) The fate of another such mission, Operation Sunflower, was no different; having been declared on February 6, 1967, the first reaction it drew was a strong letter from Ho Chi Minh, who warned the president that â€Å"the people of Viet Nam are determined not to surrender under the threats of bombing†. (Brigham, 1998, p. 143) This phase offered a six-day bombing pause in February 1967. Even while the Americans were again strict on the condition of reciprocity from North Vietnam, that of stopping infiltration, the administration gathered evidence that the North Vietnamese were taking advantage and were supplying arms to the South, forcing Washington to drop the plan. Another initiative was the San Antonio formula of September-December 1967. This, too, did not offer anything new or different; it reiterated American willingness to stop bombing and talk, if the North met its obligation of supplying arms to the South. North Vietnam, predictably, dismissed the offer. There were other initiatives for negotiation, too, between October 1966 and February 1968. Starting with moves initiated on the occasion of the funeral of Indian Prime Minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri, other steps, clearly half-hearted, were taken. These, in addition to neutral moves by eminent persons and the Glassboro summit, were given high sounding codenames such as Packers, Aspen, Ohio and Pennsylvania. (Gelb Betts, 1979, p. 163) Another prominent attempt of a peace mission was that of the Italian cleric, Giorgio La Pira in 1965. To his desperate pleas to end the war, all that the Johnson administration made was this indifferent reaction: State Department Executive Secretary Benjamin Read commented to presidential advisor, Walt Rostow thus: â€Å"[La Piras] telegram is another in a voluminous series of peace messages. In view of La Piras well-known position on Vietnam and other issues, it is recommended no reply be made.† (Miller, 1999, p. 143) The net result of these peace overtures was a near zero. All these gave rise to the Tet offensive. (Gelb Betts, 1979, p. 165) This was the event that signalled what a morass the US had got into. On the night of January 31, 1968, some troops owing their allegiance to the North Vietnamese leader attacked the American embassy of Saigon. Although the Americans put it down in no time, the event opened the floodgates to the seemingly never-ending nature of the war, showing up the complete lack of understanding of the war of the American soldiers, who went on the rampage, committing acts of unheard of savagery. (Isserman Kazin, 2000, p. 223) Thus, while peace was being sought, the actions of the administration took the two sides anywhere but there. Conclusion While fixing the blame for the failures of the negotiations processes, students of history need to see the situation in the backdrop of the Cold War era. In retrospect, in the age of extremely fierce rivalry between the two superpowers played out through their allies, perhaps some of the blame can be mitigated from Johnson when he refused to trust the Polish, a staunch communist country. To be fair, he was only reciprocating an attitude of great mutual distrust of the Cold War protagonists. (Vandiver, 1997, p. 156) However, it needs to be said that on this particular, extremely important occasion, he was allowing the history of their relationship to cloud his judgement, when there appeared no motive on the part of the Polish other than to bring about a ceasefire during Operation Marigold. The bottom line of the historic criticisms against Johnson relates to his oscillation between escalation and negotiation, the total disconnect between the executive and the armed forces, and the catastrophic consequences these produced. Offensives continued even as Operation Marigold was on; later, two months into the Tet offensive, there were no concrete results, by when the president had made up his mind not to run for the 1968 elections. This decision made no great difference: the purpose for which the bombing operations took place, forcing North Vietnam to end its support for Vietcong, was not served. The bombings of ROLLING THUNDER were in no way deterring a regrouping of the North Vietnamese guerrilla fighters, who still possessed all the strength to defeat the South Vietnamese Army. (Jacobsen, 1996, p. 216) Taking an overall view of the escalation and the failure of the peace negotiations, it is difficult to point an accusatory finger at anyone other than the president. The decision to escalate the offensive was entirely his and McNamara’s. In dealing with the situation, the president had thoroughly misread the situation, and had kept insisting to the American public that the war was all but won. At no stage of the war did the president behave in a manner befitting his office. In what was to be the ultimate show of lack of conviction in the peace moves, the man he appointed to oversee the peace negotiation, Averell Harriman, was never invited to the Tuesday Lunches briefings, where updates about the situation used to be made! Moreover, the Johnson administration regarded bombings as its biggest bargaining chip, a basis upon which all its negotiations were to proceed. A lack of coordination and understanding between these two vital organs was one of the prime reasons for the failu re of whichever peace missions the president undertook. (Gelb Betts, 1979, p. 151) Neither his offensives, nor the peace moves he made later when left with no other choice was done in the right spirit. As a result, the president’s handling of the Vietnam War was to dwarf the stature of one of America’s tallest presidents. References Best, A., Hanhimà ¤ki, J. M., Maiolo, J. A., Schulze, K. E., (2004), International History of the Twentieth Century, Routledge, London. Brigham, R. K., (1998), Guerrilla Diplomacy: The NLFs Foreign Relations and the Viet Nam War, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY. Brown-Collier, E. K., (1998), Johnsons Great Society: Its Legacy in the 1990s. Review of Social Economy, Vol. 56, No.3, p. 259+. Retrieved May 13, 2006, from Questia database. Dallek, R., (1998), Flawed Giant: Lyndon Johnson and His Times, 1961-1973, Oxford University Press, New York. Dallek, R., (2004), Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President, Oxford University Press, New York. Gelb, L. H., Betts, R. K., (1979), The Irony of Vietnam: The System Worked, Brookings Institution, Washington, DC. Isserman, M., Kazin, M., (2000), America Divided The Civil War of the 1960s, Oxford University Press, New York. Jacobsen, M., (1996), 13 President Johnson and the Decision To Curtail Rolling Thunder. In The Tet Offensive, Gilbert, M. J. Head, W. (Eds.) (pp. 215-227), Praeger, Westport, CT. Liebovich, L. W., (1998), The Press and the Modern Presidency: Myths and Mindsets from Kennedy to Clinton, Praeger Publishers, Westport, CT. Miller, J. E., (1999), 5 Ambivalent about America: Giorgio la Pira and the Catholic Left in Italy from NATO Ratification to the Vietnam War. In The United States and the European Alliance Since 1945 /, Burk, K. Stokes, M. (Eds.) (pp. 127-144), Berg, New York. Parker, F. C., (1989), Vietnam: Strategy for a Stalemate (1st ed.), Paragon Press, New York. Reiter, D., Stam, A. C., (2002), Democracies at War, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ. Vandiver, F. E., (1997), Shadows of Vietnam: Lyndon Johnsons Wars (1st ed.), Texas AM University Press, College Station, TX. Wiest, A., (2003), The Vietnam War, 1956-1975, Routledge, New York.

Ancher Public Trading Essay -- Business Management Memo Essays

Ancher Public Trading TO:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Board of Directors FROM:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Learning Team A consultants DATE:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  August 22, 2005 SUBJECT:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Sarbanes-Oxley recommendations As consultants for Ancher Public Trading (APT), Learning Team A would like to discuss the implications of the Sarbanes-Oxley (SOX) legislation. This memorandum provides a brief history of SOX ¡Ã‚ ¦s creation, explains the relationship amongst the FASB, SEC and PCAOB, describes the pros and cons of SOX, assesses the impacts of SOX, and lists ethical considerations of SOX. History of SOX - the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 is legislation in response to the high profile financial scandals, such as seen with Enron and WorldCom. The purpose of this act is to protect shareholders and the general public from accounting errors and fraudulent business practices. The Sarbanes-Oxley Act introduced stringent new rules to protect investors by improving the accuracy and reliability of corporate disclosures made pursuant to the securities laws. Sarbanes-Oxley is not a set of business practices and does not specify how a business should store records; rather, Sarbanes-Oxley defines which records are to be stored and for how long. A.) The relationship among the FASB, SEC and PCAOB „ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  SOX is administered by the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). The SEC sets deadlines for compliance and publishes rules on requirements. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) is the department to which all publicly-traded companies, effective since 2004, are required to submit annual reports of the effectiveness of their internal accounting controls. The SEC has broad authority over all aspects of the securities industry. This includes the power to register, regulate, and oversee brokerage firms, transfer agents, and clearing agencies. Along with them, is the FASB. „ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), is a professional standards board created by accountants to establish Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP), which are the accounting standards used by accountants in the U.S. The GAAP reporting method makes it possible for investors and regulatory authorities to accurately determine an organization's financial results. „ «Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) was created to oversee the activities of the auditing profession. Specifically to oversee t... ... Line56 ,Retrieved August 17, 2001. Retrieved on 8/19/2005, from http://ww.line56.com/articles. Hein, M. (2002). The Sarbanes Oxley act of 2002 effects sweeping changes to the U.S. federal securities laws. Retrieved on August 21, 2005, from www. www.gtlaw.com. Hyatt, J. (2005). Birth of the ethics industry. Business Ethics Online, The magazine of corporate responsibility. Retrieved on 8/19/2005, from www.business-ethics.com. Johnson, C. (2005). Pros and cons of accounting rules weighed Sarbanes Oxley - more   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  audits, accountability. San Francisco Chronicle on the Web. Retrieved August 17,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  2001, from gin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/05/05/BUGJBE3DQ71.html. Leporte, G. (2007). Chief of the office of small business policy at the U.S. sSecurities and Exchange Commission. Retrieved on August 17th, 2005, from http://accounting.smartpros.com . Linsley, C. (2003). Auditing, risk management and a post Sarbanes-Oxley world. Review of Business. Solomon, Deborah. (March, 2005) Accounting Rule Exposes Problems But Draws Complaints About Costs. Wall Street Journal. Wallace, S. (2005). Only the ethical need apply. The Christian Science Monitor. March 30, 2005 edition.

To Kill a Mockingbird Review

Harper Lee’s To Kill a Mockingbird is regarded as one of the great pieces of literature of its time. It is universally respected because the author uses the common experience of growing up, through the eyes of his narrator Scout, to speak about intense topics such as racism, injustice, and prejudice in the Southern United States in the 1930’s. Atticus Finch states during the story, â€Å"you never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view†¦ until you climb into his skin and walk around in it. Harper Lee helps us understand the issues that matter to him in To Kill a Mockingbird using the universal experience of growing up through the eyes and skin of a child, the main character and narrator, Scout Finch. In the beginning, Scout has a great deal of respect for her father, Atticus. Although, she has a tremendous amount of respect for him, her attitude toward him is self-centered and childish. She feels that he is an old man and canâ €™t do very much. After the trial of Tom Robinson however, Scout sees her father put himself in a very dangerous position, risking his life to fight for what he believes is right by defending an innocent black man in the racist south. Her father teaches her, â€Å"In our courts, when it’s a white man’s word against a black man, the white man always wins. They’re ugly, but those are the facts of life. † Through this experience, Scout gains more respect for her father and realizes the sometimes harsh realities of the world she is living in, that life isn’t all childish games. She sees that her father is a hardworking man with good morals, who does the right thing even if it’s hard and dangerous. In this way, we witness her point of view growing up. It is obvious in the first couple of chapters that Scout has very little patience for everyone and can lose her temper in an instant. For this reason, when people (mainly children) make her mad even just a little, that she gets in plenty of fights with them and ends up getting in trouble. However, during an afternoon at her house with Aunt Alexandra and her missionary circle, Scout decides that she needs to learn to become a woman. The ladies wore powder and rose, smelled good, and gossiped over coffee cups and refreshments. Scout admits, â€Å"I wondered at the world of women†¦ There was no doubt about it, I must soon enter this world, where on its surface fragrant ladies rocked slowly, fanned gently, and drank cool water. During this luncheon, it’s one of the first times in the story you see Scout attempt to choose her words more carefully and care what others were thinking of her. In this way, you see Scout attempting to have a more grown up manner of acting. Scouts ability to see the world through other people’s eyes changes throughout the course of the story, but finally at the end when she meets Boo Radley. At first, Scout and her brother Jem were very curious along with being scared of Boo Radley. They wanted to see who he was so badly that they tried peeking into the Radley house but were unsuccessful. However, at the end when Boo saves Jem and Scout from being killed by Bob Ewell and Scout finally meets Boo, she realizes that he really isn’t a very bad or scary man after all. She walked Boo home and stood on the Radley front porch and saw the world from Boo’s point of view. A quote came from Atticus when Scout told him â€Å"he was real nice†, and Atticus replied: â€Å"Most people are Scout, when you finally see them†.

Free Essays on Give Them A Break

The purpose of this paper is to show the importance of a need for change in the government maternity leave policy. Maternity leave is the  ¡Ã‚ §period of disability ¡Ã‚ ¨ that a woman takes to recovery, usually 4- to 6-weeks (6- to 8-weeks if there is a c-section). (Babycenter) The idea of referring to the time needed to recover as a  ¡Ã‚ §period of disability ¡Ã‚ ¨ should give some idea of the importance of enough time. (Babycenter) Many companies have maternity leave policies that could give them up to a year off, with pay, and guarantee that they would be able to return when they are ready. Other companies allow a very minimal amount of time, no pay, but will be allowed to return because of the protection against discrimination. The problem with these different policies is that women take different amounts of time to heal and there are different situations with every woman. With a set amount of time, this would give all women an equal amount of time to recover and if they did not need all the time, they would be able to return whenever they were better while still receiving a percentage of their incomes. There must be a government-regulated amount of paid time-off that companies and cooperations must allow their female employees who are to give birth or have just given birth. The idea of having a set amount of time and percentage of income for everyone reflects Deborah Stone ¡Ã‚ ¦s idea of equity. (Stone 39) In a Utopian society, there would be complete equality and everyone would be able to take as much time off as they needed, but this is not always true. The problem is, although many other countries are not Utopian societies, the maternity leave policies that they have created are far more generous than that of the United States.  ¡Ã‚ §The United States is still far behind many other countries such as Sweden, which grants more than a year of paid leave to new parents, whether they're mothers or fathers. ¡Ã‚ ¨ (Mortazavi 2000) The Un... Free Essays on Give Them A Break Free Essays on Give Them A Break The purpose of this paper is to show the importance of a need for change in the government maternity leave policy. Maternity leave is the  ¡Ã‚ §period of disability ¡Ã‚ ¨ that a woman takes to recovery, usually 4- to 6-weeks (6- to 8-weeks if there is a c-section). (Babycenter) The idea of referring to the time needed to recover as a  ¡Ã‚ §period of disability ¡Ã‚ ¨ should give some idea of the importance of enough time. (Babycenter) Many companies have maternity leave policies that could give them up to a year off, with pay, and guarantee that they would be able to return when they are ready. Other companies allow a very minimal amount of time, no pay, but will be allowed to return because of the protection against discrimination. The problem with these different policies is that women take different amounts of time to heal and there are different situations with every woman. With a set amount of time, this would give all women an equal amount of time to recover and if they did not need all the time, they would be able to return whenever they were better while still receiving a percentage of their incomes. There must be a government-regulated amount of paid time-off that companies and cooperations must allow their female employees who are to give birth or have just given birth. The idea of having a set amount of time and percentage of income for everyone reflects Deborah Stone ¡Ã‚ ¦s idea of equity. (Stone 39) In a Utopian society, there would be complete equality and everyone would be able to take as much time off as they needed, but this is not always true. The problem is, although many other countries are not Utopian societies, the maternity leave policies that they have created are far more generous than that of the United States.  ¡Ã‚ §The United States is still far behind many other countries such as Sweden, which grants more than a year of paid leave to new parents, whether they're mothers or fathers. ¡Ã‚ ¨ (Mortazavi 2000) The Un...

Gypsies in the Holocaust - Forgotten Victims

Gypsies in the Holocaust - Forgotten Victims The Gypsies of Europe were registered, sterilized, ghettoized, and then deported to concentration and death camps by the Nazis before and during World War II. Approximately 250,000 to 500,000 Gypsies were murdered during the Holocaust- an event they call the Porajmos (the Devouring.) A Short History Approximately a thousand years ago, several groups of people migrated from northern India, dispersing throughout Europe over the next several centuries. Though these people were part of several tribes (the largest of which are the Sinti and Roma), the settled peoples called them by a collective name, Gypsies- which stems from the one-time belief that they had come from Egypt. Nomadic, dark-skinned, non-Christian, speaking a foreign language (Romani), not tied to the land- Gypsies were very different from the settled peoples of Europe. Misunderstandings of Gypsy culture created suspicions and fears, which in turn led to rampant speculation, stereotypes, and biased stories. Many of these stereotypes and stories are still readily believed. Throughout the following centuries, non-Gypsies (Gaje) continually tried to either assimilate Gypsies or kill them. Attempts to assimilate Gypsies involved stealing their children and placing them with other families; giving them cattle and feed, expecting them to become farmers; outlawing their customs, language, and clothing as well as forcing them to attend school and church. Decrees, laws, and mandates often allowed the killing of Gypsies. In 1725 King Frederick William I of Prussia ordered all Gypsies over 18 years old to be hanged. A practice of Gypsy hunting was common- a game hunt similar to fox hunting. Even as late as 1835, a Gypsy hunt in Jutland (Denmark) brought in a bag of over 260 men, women, and children, write Donald Kenrick and Grattan Puxon. Though Gypsies had undergone centuries of such persecution, it remained relatively random and sporadic until the 20th century when the negative stereotypes became intrinsically molded into a racial identity, and the Gypsies were systematically slaughtered. Under the Third Reich The persecution of Gypsies started at the very beginning of the Third Reich. Gypsies were arrested and interned in concentration camps as well as sterilized under the July 1933 Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring. In the beginning, Gypsies were not specifically named as a group that threatened the Aryan, German people. This was because, under Nazi racial ideology, Gypsies were Aryans. The Nazis had a problem: How could they persecute a group enveloped in negative stereotypes but supposedly part of the Aryan super race? Nazi racial researchers eventually came upon a so-called scientific reason to persecute most of the Gypsies. They found their answer in Professor Hans F. K. Gà ¼nthers book Rassenkunde Europas (Anthropology of Europe) where he wrote: The Gypsies have indeed retained some elements from their Nordic home, but they are descended from the lowest classes of the population in that region. In the course of their migrations, they have absorbed the blood of the surrounding peoples, and have thus become an Oriental, western-Asiatic racial mixture, with an addition of Indian, mid-Asiatic, and European strains. Their nomadic mode of living is a result of this mixture. The Gypsies will generally affect Europe as aliens. With this belief, the Nazis needed to determine who was pure Gypsy and who was mixed. Thus, in 1936, the Nazis established the Racial Hygiene and Population Biology Research Unit, with Dr. Robert Ritter at its head, to study the Gypsy problem and to make recommendations for Nazi policy. As with the Jews, the Nazis needed to determine who was to be considered a Gypsy. Dr. Ritter decided that someone could be considered a Gypsy if they had one or two Gypsies among his grandparents or if two or more of his grandparents are part-Gypsies. Kenrick and Puxon blame Dr. Ritter for the additional 18,000 German Gypsies who were killed because of this more inclusive designation, rather than if the same rules had been followed as were applied to Jews, who had have three or four Jewish grandparents to be considered Jews. To study Gypsies, Dr. Ritter, his assistant Eva Justin, and his research team visited the Gypsy concentration camps (Zigeunerlagers) and examined thousands of Gypsies- documenting, registering, interviewing, photographing, and finally categorizing them. It was from this research that Dr. Ritter formulated that 90% of Gypsies were of mixed blood, thus dangerous. Having established a scientific reason to persecute 90% of the Gypsies, the Nazis needed to decide what to do with the other 10%- the ones who were nomadic and appeared to have the least number of Aryan qualities. At times Interior Minister Heinrich  Himmler discussed letting the pure Gypsies roam relatively freely and also suggested a special reservation for them. Assumably as part of one of these possibilities, nine Gypsy representatives were selected in October 1942 and told to create lists of Sinti and Lalleri to be saved. There must have been confusion within the Nazi leadership. Many wanted all Gypsies killed, with no exceptions. On December 3, 1942,  Martin Bormann  wrote in a letter to Himmler: ... special treatment would mean a fundamental deviation from the simultaneous measures for fighting the Gypsy menace and would not be understood at all by the population and lower leaders of the party. Also the Fà ¼hrer would not agree to giving one section of the Gypsies their old freedom. Though the Nazis did not discover a scientific reason to kill the 10% of Gypsies categorized as pure, no distinctions made when Gypsies were ordered to  Auschwitz  or deported to the other death camps. By the end of the war, an estimated 250,000 to 500,000 Gypsies were murdered in the Porajmos- killing approximately three-fourths of the German Gypsies and half of the Austrian Gypsies. For an overview of all that happened to the Gypsies during the Third Reich, there is a  timeline  to help outline the process from Aryan to annihilation. Sources Friedman, Philip. The Extermination of the Gypsies: Nazi Genocide of an Aryan People.  Roads to Extinction: Essays on the Holocaust, Ed. Ada June Friedman. Jewish Publication Society of America, 1980, New York.ï » ¿Kenrick, Donald and Puxon, Grattan.  The Destiny of Europes Gypsies. Basic Books, 1972, New York.

Event Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words - 1

Event Management - Essay Example It becomes significant for the event manager to consider the influences of an event all through implementing an effective planning process. Event impacts also capture the minds of the organisational members along with the policy makers for evaluating public expenditure on events and to assess any negative externalities (Damster & Tassiopoulos, 2006). The study related to event impacts have been arrived by the requirement to test the positive as well as negative influences of holding an event for the purpose of justifying public spending on events. The positive as well as negative influences can be observed at the time of conducting an event. The impact of event might be felt by numerous stakeholders along with the participants, local businesses as well as host community. There are different ways in which the event is likely to impact. The various areas upon which event are likely to impact include physical infrastructure, environmental, economic as well as tourism impacts, image enhancements and urban renewal. The inspirational power of any sporting event which further tends to be stimulated by media reach recommends the fact that they can be a useful tool in developing the interests of the people towards involvement in sports. It can be affirmed that the perception of an organiser relating to the socio-economic impacts of the f estivals along with other special events tends to possess four main domains such as economic benefits, community cohesiveness, social incentives as well as social costs (Gursoy & et. al., 2004). It can be revealed that the positive inflows of revenues into the country cannot be considered as the only factor towards recognising the success of an event. The negative social influence related to an event can lead to greater damages to the future of an event and the ecological influence might also lead towards premature death of any poorly administered event (Daniels & et. al., 2004). It can be identified that an

Complete Marketing Plan Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Complete Marketing Plan - Research Paper Example Executive Summary Chipotle Mexican Grill Restaurant has been present in the market since 1993 and has been successfully meeting the needs and demands of its customers. It went public in 2006 when McDonald’s divested its non-core business restaurants and Chipotle was one of them. Since then, it has been following a focused marketing strategy for expanding into various regions locally and internationally. It has competitive edge in the market as it is the only company that is offering healthy and nutritious food items along with fast-casual dining experience; the main target market of the company is young generation aged in between 16-30 years who are looking for delicious meals at economical prices. Although it has successfully earned a good reputation in the market but there are many avenues that are unexploited by the company. One attractive segment is of old people aged above forty years who are looking for healthy food along with a pleasurable dining experience. The marketi ng plan for this target market is designed especially for Columbus, Ohio region where no fast-food restaurant is targeting this segment. In order to reach and satisfy this market, the marketing strategy along with implementation and evaluation plan is discussed so that the company can easily implement it. The most effective way of fulfilling the needs of old people is to offer them affordable meals by marketing them on the online mediums as these people are technologically savvy. If the plan is properly implemented, then there are high chances that the company can successfully penetrate in this market. II. Situation Analysis Brief Introduction of Chipotle Mexican Grill Restaurant Chipotle Mexican Grill was started by Steve Ells in 1993 in Colorado with the aim of providing exceptionally high quality fast-food items that are made from fresh and premium ingredients. Presently, Chipotle Mexican Grill Inc. is a chain of restaurants that are located in Canada, United Kingdom and United S tates. The name of the restaurant was derived from chipotle which is the Mexican Spanish name of smoked and dried jalapeno chili pepper (â€Å"Unique Corporate Culture drives results†, 2008) The specialty of the chain is in the burritos and tacos offered to the customers along with use of natural and organic ingredients and assembly-line production. The company is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and it went public in 2006 when McDonald’s divested all of its non-core business restaurants (â€Å"About Us†, 2012). The mission of Chipotle Mexican Grill Restaurant is defined as Food with Integrity that highlights its focus on using only pure and organic ingredients and serves the customers with naturally raised meat; it gives the restaurant a competitive edge over all other restaurants present in the market (â€Å"Food with integrity†, 2012). It is among the pioneers who developed the concept of fast-casual dining restaurants. Currently, it is present in more than 1200 locations in about 43 states including France, Ontario, England, Washington and Toronto. According to Brandau (2012), the chain earned net income of US$215 million in the year 2011 and had a workforce of about 30,940 employees. The chain is run by a board that comprises of four directors along with a chairman (Steve Ells) and is headquartered in Denver, Colorado (â€Å"

Administering the questionnaire survey Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Administering the questionnaire survey - Essay Example phical limitations they may put into effect on the surveys and the vast resources needed if such surveys need to be done nationally or internationally. The cost of training interviewers in questioning methods, traveling cost, and interpretation of response is also high. In addition, respondents might feel apprehensive about the ambiguity of their responses when they interact face-to-face interviews. In long interviews, either tiredness or edginess can affect the quality of responses as the interview progresses. Interviewers must be willing to face potentially unlikable and risky situations alone, be able to come up to strangers and need to have the personal skills to conduct an interview. Face-to-face interview can be negatively affected by the noticeable characteristics (gender, race, class) of an interviewer. For example, there might be different responses on questions such as abortion and attitudes to sexual mores if there is gender difference. However, the advantage of face-to-face interview is that the interviewer has got the flexibility of adjusting questions as per the situation, clarify doubts, if any, and ensure that the responses are properly understood by repeating the questions. Moreover, the interviewer can also use non-verbal cues from the respondent. Any embarrassment or stress experienced by the respondent can be felt through frowns, and other body language, unconsciously exhibited by any person. Telephone interviews are interviews that are held over the phone. Telephone interviews involve making telephone contact with selected sample members and asking the questions over the phone. Telephone interview methods allow skilled interviewers to build rapport yet maintain considerable respondent anonymity. The main disadvantage of telephone interview is that the respondent could unilaterally terminate the interview without warning or explanation by hanging up the phone. It requires skilled professionals who could interact with the respondent in a

To Grade or Not to Grade Essay Example for Free

To Grade or Not to Grade Essay Sweaty hands, racing heartbeat, trouble breathing. These are a few of the things some students may experience right before, or even during a test. Jerry Farber brings some very interesting alternatives to testing and to the whole grading process in an article he wrote called, â€Å"A young person’s guide to the grading system†. (Farber 1969) In A young persons guide to the grading system (Farber 1969) Farber has some radical ideas for change that unfortunately, may not be taken seriously enough to invoke change. Although in my opinion his ideas are certainly something that could benefit many students in many ways. In brief, what Farber says is, instead of grading with A’s and F’s, schools could use something he calls the â€Å"credit system†. He goes on to say â€Å"If you meet the minimum requirements of a course, you get credit for it. No A’s or C’s or silver stars, just credit†. (Farber 1969) The best part of this is if you do not meet the minimum requirements nothing happens. As a student that certainly struggles when it comes times for a test, I would like to see some of his ideas implemented in schools. The way school works now, if you try your best but still don’t meet the minimum requirements of the course, it can greatly affect your grade point average. It can even affect your financial aid or get it taken away completely. Also, students will have to pay again to re-take the class, thus adding more money on to your student loans. What a turn off to learning this becomes. Instead of really wanting to learn, school becomes more of learning only what you have to learn to pass a class. Is this what school is supposed to be about? Only learning what we must? I believe Farbers ideas would certainly make school a lot more stress free, thus opening up the doors to free learning. Looking at this from the point of view of the student who struggles with test anxiety or grades in general, but is very smart and puts forth great effort, Farbers ideas make all the sense in the world. A great number of the jobs in the world today require a college degree when on the job training and apprenticeships would be so much more practical. Is it really a good idea to pay for four years of college, graduate and then get training? I think not. To me it makes perfect sense to skip to the on-the-job training. After all, that’s where we learn the most about the job we are doing. And what about all the money spent on college? Is this necessary? According to the Project on student Loan Debt, â€Å"The average amount of student loan debt was $24,000 in 2010. And the unemployment rate is up for college grads too. Given that the average job for a person fresh out of college was approximately 27,000 a year in 2011, according to an article in the New York Times. (NY Times) Does it make sense to burden our young people with a debt that will take years to pay off? Apprenticeships would be so much more beneficial to people and to the government as well. No more student loans or finical aid! Well, at least not as much money going towards them. High schools may see a decrease in the drop-out rate and could turn out smarter, more confident students with a genuine eagerness to learn. I believe Farbers eagerness to teach his students out-of-the-box may have been the reason for him writing this article. Farber is a professor at San Diego University to me that says a lot. He may have gotten tired of seeing his own bright students not meet the requirements of the school and offered a new solution to the problems of the current grading system. Farber has developed a unique new alternative to the current rigid grading system. Wouldn’t it be a great thing to see a study done in a large university that implemented these ideas? It may work. No one will know until it’s tried and tested. Unfortunately this article was written in 1969 and through my research online I was not able to find a single school that was ever willing to take a chance and give more students the chance to â€Å"learn without restriction†. (Farber 1969) References Farber, J. (1969). A young person’s guide to the grading system. In Baker College composition: A custom approach (Revised Edition) (pp. 184-188). Boston, MA: Pearson. [Grads today]. (2011, January 10). Retrieved January 31, 2013, from http://www.nytimes.com/business/ economy/19grads.html [Student loan debt]. (2011, April 7). Retrieved January 31, 2013, from http://projectonstudentloandebt.org/

Child Labor - Economic Exploitation of Children Essays -- Foreign Dome

Child Labor - Economic Exploitation of Children   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Child labor is a serious problem in many parts of the world, especially in developing countries. It has been linked to many nations and cultures for hundreds of years. Child labor is defined by Article 32 of the Convention on the Rights of the Child: as any economic exploitation or work that is likely to be hazardous or interferes with the child’s education, or is harmful to the child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral, or social development. Labor is defined as a difficult, or fatiguing mental and/or physical work. It wasn’t until the Industrial Revolution that it became the problem it is today. With the arrival of the factory system in the 18th century, during the 1700s, children as young as five were being used as workers in England. During this period, a law called the English Poor Act gave the government the responsibility to care for children that had no parents or whose parents were too poor to care for them. Under this law, the government would take these â€Å"pauper children† and place them in jobs where they could become apprentices and learn a trade. The law was not usually affective because when children were handed over to the factory owners and usually became slaves. This is a violation of the â€Å"Human Rights Document: Universal Declaration of Human Rights† in article 4, which states: no one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms. Children were used to tend to machines in factories and many worked in the dark, damp coalmines, carrying coal on their backs up ladders. Many children would work 10 to 15 hour days. This is a violation of the â€Å"Human Rights Document† in article 24, which states: everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working hours and periodic holidays with pay. They were forced to work in dangerous and unhealthy conditions, and their wages were incredibly small. There are many reasons why these children work; poverty, lack of education, lack of knowledge of one’s rights, and cultura l tradition are all contributing factors. These children are often deprived and mistreated. They may get beaten or severely punished for making even the slightest mistake. This is another violation of the â€Å"Human Rights Document† in article 1, which states: all human beings are bor... ...the child labor; they don’t have any legal power. The trade unions are weak and don’t have the funds to do the job. Over several years the proposed law, now known as the Child Labor Deterrence Act, has been reintroduced along with a companion bill in the House. However, no vote has been taken on the House bill and the proposal was still pending at the beginning of 1998.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Some U.S. cities are passing laws to ensure that the goods they purchase are not made in foreign or domestic sweatshops. In 1992, the organization established the International Program on the Elimination of Child Labor (IPEC), which has implemented more than 600 action programs in 27 countries. The goal of these programs is to prevent and fight child labor by helping children withdraw from work in selected villages, provide support services for the children and their families, and change community attitudes towards child labor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Putting an end to child labor requires changes on many fronts, especially on attitudes about child labor and the world’s poor. To help bring about changes in attitudes, activists in many countries are raising awareness that child labor violates fundamental human rights.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  

Guyana’s Culture

Culture name: Guyanese Identification. Guyana is an Amerindian word meaning â€Å"the land of many waters. † Attempts to forge a common identity have foundered, and it is more accurate to speak of African, Indian, and Amerindian Guyanese cultures. There were small European, Portuguese â€Å"colored,† and Chinese communities before large-scale migration to Canada and the United States in the late 1960s. British Guiana was referred to as â€Å"the land of six peoples. † Location and Geography.Guyana is on the northeastern shoulder of South America, bounded on the north by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by Suriname, on the northwest by Venezuela, and on the south and southwest by Brazil. The capital city is Georgetown. In an area of 83,000 square miles (212,000 square kilometers), there are three regions: the narrow coastal belt of rich alluvium; the densely forested, hilly sand and clay belt; and the Rupununi grasslands between the rain forests and the frontier wi th Brazil. Over 90 percent of the population lives on the coastal belt, which is below sea level.The Dutch, using African slaves in the eighteenth century, made this area habitable. Every square mile of cultivated land has forty-nine miles of drainage canals and ditches and sixteen miles of high-level waterways. Demography. The population was 758,619 in 1980. It had declined to 723,800 in 1991, and an estimated 720,700 in 1996. In 1991, the population consisted of 49 percent Indians; 35 percent Africans; 7 percent mixed race peoples; and 6. 8 percent Amerindians. Indians are of the following religions: Hindu, 65 percent; Muslim, 20 percent; and Christian, 15 percent.Massive migration has led to the virtual disappearance of Chinese, mixed, Europeans, and Portuguese. Linguistic Affiliation. The official language is English. No African languages survived slavery, nor have those of the indentured laborers (Indians, Madeiran Portuguese, and Chinese). Guyanese speak creole dialects of Eng lish with varying ethnic lexical imprints. However, all dialects are mutually intelligible. Symbolism. There are few national symbols or metaphors. The national hero, Cuffy, the leader of the Berbice Slave Rebellion in 1763, is primarily an African Guyanese hero whose statue in Georgetown evokes Indian antipathy.Indians tend to identify with an India of the imagination and the Hindu and Muslim religions. Africans often look to an imagined Africa. The utopian vision of Guyana—El Dorado—created by Sir Walter Raleigh in the 1590s, claims the imagination of most Guyanese today. History and Ethnic Relations National Identity. The colonial rulers promoted images of Britishness to inculcate loyalty to the empire, but although various ethnic groups absorbed aspects of that culture, they retained their identities. The Portuguese attempted to selectively Anglicize their Madeiran Catholic culture to stress their European-ness.Most Africans adapted British culture to an essentiall y African core. Indians, coming after the Africans (between 1838 and 1917), sustained a stronger sense of their national identity. This process of â€Å"creolization† affected all groups but did not forge a national culture. Ethnic Relations. After adopting British cultural idioms, the African and mixed middle class deprecated the â€Å"backward coolie† culture of Indians. The Indians, steeped in ancient notions of caste, brought rigid ideals of color and physical features to their judgment of African people, although most Indian immigrants were themselves dark.Africans and Indians thus constructed distinct Guyana identities. A brief political compromise in the early 1950s could not moderate their mutual incomprehension. In the early 1960s, both groups violently contested the space being vacated by the British; this has left a legacy of racial hatred. Ethnic relations since independence in 1966 have been undermined by the notion that politics consists of the allocation of the spoils of power to the ruling ethnic section. Alternating ruling African and Indian elites publicly criticize the role of culture and ethnicity in political mobilization while exploiting it.Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space The two main commercial centers are Georgetown and New Amsterdam. The colonial architecture found in parts of Georgetown is still impressive wooden buildings with jalousies and high ceilings to facilitate ventilation, some featuring large, wooden verandas. In rural areas, there are many wooden buildings made up of many eclectic styles, but all are built on stilts to protect them from floods. Wooden buildings are fading into the past, however, as concrete buildings are becoming more common. Food and EconomyFood in Daily Life. Basic foods reflect ethnic preferences, but there has been considerable cross-fertilization. The creole foods created by Africans have been adopted by all the other groups. Dishes made from â€Å"ground provisions† n ow constitute a national menu: crab or fish soups with plantains, eddoes, cassava, dasheen, and coconut milk; â€Å"cook-up rice† with black-eyed peas, pigs tail, green plantain, and cassareep; and Indian curries and roti. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. At African festivals and life cycle rites, creole foods are served.Vegetarian curries are provided at Hindu weddings; the day after a wedding, curried meat is served. Basic Economy. Most food is produced locally, including rice, fruits and vegetables, sugar, cooking oils, fish and seafood, meat, and rum. Colonial tastes survive in the form of sardines, corned beef and mutton, chocolate, and whiskey. Imports largely consist of fuels and lubricants, cars, agricultural machinery, clothing and footwear, and consumer durables. Commercial Activities. In a primarily agricultural country, the main exports are sugar and rum.Rice is grown primarily on small farms, and coconuts also are an important crop. The major industrial prod ucts are bauxite, gold, and lumber. Fishing is established, as is livestock rearing. Tourism, mainly to the wild interior, is in its infancy. Major Industries. Industry is still in its infancy in Guyana. The one exception to this are the companies that process bauxite and the facilities in rural areas set up to dredge for gold. Trade. Guyana trades primarily with the European Union (mainly the United Kingdom), Canada, the United States, and the Caribbean community.Most of the country's main export, sugar, is sold to the European Union. The bulk of rice production goes to the Caribbean, and bauxite is exported to Canada and the United States. Division of Labor. Eighty percent of workers in the sugar industry and 90 percent of rice farmers are Indian, as are many growers of fruits and vegetables and forestry and fishing workers. Africans tend to go into the professions, work in public service, and seek employment as skilled workers in urban centers and the interior. Social Stratificat ion Classes and Castes.There are class differences within each ethnic group. One can identify an Indian middle class based primarily in commerce and an African middle class in the professions and the upper echelons of public service. Middle class consciousness across ethnic lines is weak, and includes very few Amerindians. Between 1988 and 1996, gross domestic product increased by forty percent, with remarkable growth in sectors where Indians are disproportionately represented. The public sector, where Africans dominate, experienced no growth in that period.Symbols of Social Stratification. Markers that locate people as middle class regardless of ethnicity include place of residence, the employment of security guards, the type of car driven, the type of English spoken, the frequency of travel overseas, where and what the men drink, where the women shop, clubs, and access to private tutors for children. Political Life Government. The 1992 and 1997 general elections were won by the pr edominantly Indian People's Progressive Party (PPP).The elections of 1968, 1973, 1980, and 1985 and the referendum of 1978 were widely seen to be rigged in favor of the predominantly African People's National Congress (PNC), which ruled from 1964 to 1992. The electoral system has been one of proportional representation since 1964. Fifty-three seats in the national Parliament are allocated proportionally. Another tier of government serves the ten regions; the President, who is the leader of the victorious party, heads the government but does not sit in Parliament. Leadership and Political Officials.Elections are a demonstration of ethnic strength rather than a reflection of popular will. Cheddi Jagan and L. F. S. Burnham were the cofounders of the PPP, a loose coalition of the two main ethnic groups. The first PPP government, elected in April 1953, was thrown out by the British for fear of communism. Party rivalries since that time have involved different versions of Marxism, and the various parties have failed to deal with racial antagonism. Military Activity. Before the 1990s, the army was crucial to the projection of political power, and was a source of employment for African youths.In 1992, the Guyana Defence Force was 97 percent African and 3 percent Amerindian, with Indians accounting for less than one percent. Gender Roles and Statuses Division of Labor by Gender. The economic and political spheres are dominated by men, but a few women are senior officials in the government. Although there has been one female president, there is a paucity of women in the cabinet, the legislature, and the leadership of political parties. Women play a significant role as farmers, market vendors, teachers, nurses, civil servants, and clerks, as well as doing housework.In recent years girls have outperformed boys in regional examinations, and more women than men attend university. The Relative Status of Women and Men. The abandonment of children by fathers and a culture of m ale-centered drinking frequently leave women with the sole responsibility for their children. In urban areas, where the extended family is often nonexistent, many African women are the family breadwinners. The state provides virtually no social welfare assistance. Marriage, Family, and Kinship Marriage. Among Hindus and Muslims, arranged, comparatively early marriages are common.Middle-class Indians have greater freedom in choosing a spouse, especially if the woman is a professional. Marriage usually occurs later, and the family is smaller. Indian families are patriarchal and often function as corporate economic units. Formal marriage is less common among the African working class, and the middle classes marry later. Domestic Unit. There is a high incidence of multi-generational women-centered households in working-class families. Younger men may belong to and contribute to the household, and older men may join later.Men usually marry late and often engage A woman prepares cachiri, an alcoholic drink, in a workshop. in serial monogamy before forming a stable relationship. Socialization Infant Care. Among all the ethnic groups, the extended family plays a role in the socialization of children. In an outdoor society, children are allowed to roam. In rural communities, discipline is a communal responsibility. Children and younger adults address elders not by their names but as â€Å"auntie† or â€Å"uncle. † Children usually are carried by parents, siblings, and relatives. Child Rearing and Education.Teaching children â€Å"correct† behavior is a priority. Corporal punishment is considered indispensable, and attendance at church, temple, or mosque is used to inculcate moral values. Life cycle rites and rituals are central to the shaping of a child. Higher Education. Mixed people and Africans were pioneers in education. Until the 1930s, Indians tended to resist educating girls, but the example of other groups and the emergence of an Indian mid dle class have led to a changed attitude. Until decolonization in the late 1960s, secondary schools were excellent.The University of Guyana, founded in 1963, has produced many distinguished scholars and professionals, but it has also suffered from the mass exodus of Guyanese academics. Religion Religious beliefs. African, Amerindian, and Indian traditional cultures have sustained folk practices that have penetrated Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam. Obeah has its roots in African folk religion but influences Indians as well, and Indian spirit possession has affected rural African religious sensibility. Religious Practitioners. Christian ministers, Hindu priests (Brahmins), and Muslim imams command considerable deference.However, folk religious leaders such as obeah men and women, charismatic leaders in Afro-Christian sects, and similar leaders in folk Hinduism compete with the established religious leaders. Death and the Afterlife. Death requires the public articulation of grief; th e â€Å"wake† or vigil, facilitates communal support for the bereaved, who reciprocate by providing a feast for the community. Hindus believe in reincarnation, and Africans believe that the spirit of the dead must be placated and assisted. Produce displayed for sale at a market in Parika Quayside. Agriculture is Guyana's principal commercial activity.Secular Celebrations Most festivals are based on Christian, Hindu, and Islamic beliefs, so there are few truly secular holidays or events. However, â€Å"Mashramani† is celebrated to mark the country's Republic Day on 23 February, and the anniversary of the Berbice Slave Rebellion of 1763 is also noted. The Arts and Humanities Support for the Arts. It is extremely difficult for artists to survive as public funding is very limited. Many artists have migrated. Literature. Africans celebrate their history of resistance and achievement through Anancy tales, proverbs, songs, and stories. This tradition has haped Guyanese litera ry sensibility. The first major Guyanese novelist was Edgar Mittelholzer (1909–1965), who lived and worked in England most of his life. His first novel,Corentyne Thunder,  was published in 1941 and was followed by 22 additional novels. Another noted Guyanese author, Wilson Harris (1923–), also did most of his writing in England. His works were greatly influenced by Amerindian myths and the haunting solitude of the rain forests and its majestic rivers. The country's best-known poet is Martin Carter (1927–1996), whose work was influenced by the political turmoil of the 1940s and early 1950s. Graphic Arts.The country's most accomplished painter, Aubrey Williams, was steeped in Amerindian motifs and images of the hinterland. The work of the sculptor Philip Moore is informed by West African artistic forms and motifs. In pottery, woodcraft, and basketry, Amerindians produce for the domestic and foreign markets. There is a national collection of paintings but no nati onal gallery. Performance Arts. There is a rich heritage of folk music, dance, and drama in each of the main ethnic groups but no art form to project a national identity. The impact of the national School of Dance has been limited; music and dance are still essentially ethnic.The Theatre Guild in Georgetown has sustained a dramatic tradition, as has the professional Theatre Company, but drama appeals mainly to the elite. Bibliography Adamson, Alan H. Sugar without Slaves: The Political Economy of British Guiana, 1838–1904  , 1972. Benjamin, Joel, Lakshmi Kallicharan, Ian McDonald, and Lloyd Searwar, eds. They Came in Ships: An Anthology of Indo-Guyanese Prose and Poetry  , 1998. Brown, Stewart ed. The Art of Martin Carter  , 2000. Carter, Martin. Selected Poems  , 1997. Jagan, Cheddi. The West on Trial: My Fight for Guyana's Freedom  , 1966. McGowan, Winston F. James G. Rose, and David A. Granger, eds. Themes in African Guyanese History  , 1998. Menezes, Mary Noel . The Portuguese of Guyana: A Study in Culture and Conflict  , 1994. Moore, Brian. Cultural Power, Resistance and Pluralism: Colonial Guyana, 1838–1900  , 1995. Rodney, Walter. A History of the Guyanese Working People, 1881–1905  , 1981. Seecharan, Clem. â€Å"Tiger in the Stars†: The Anatomy of Indian Achievement in British Guiana, 1919–1929  , 1997. ——. â€Å"The Shaping of the Indo-Caribbean People: Guyana and Trinidad to the 1940s. †Ã‚  Journal of Caribbean Studies  14 (1–2): 61–92, 1999–2000.Smith, Raymond T. The Negro Family in British Guiana: Family Structure and Social Status in the Villages  , 1956. ——. British Guiana  , 1962. Spinner, Thomas J. ,  A Political and Social History of Guyana, 1945–1983  , 1983. St. Pierre, Maurice. Anatomy of Resistance: Anti-Colonialism in Guyana, 1823–1966  , 1999. Sue-a-Quan, Trev. Cane Reapers: Chinese Indentured Immigrants in Guyana  , 1999. —C  LEM  S  EECHARAN Read more:  Culture of Guyana – history, people, clothing, women, beliefs, food, customs, family, social  http://www. everyculture. com/Ge-It/Guyana. html#b#ixzz28QSplBsF